GHIBERTI, Lorenzo

Ghiberti’s ascertainable work as a painter is confined to the design of important stained-glass windows: he supplied (probably in 1404) a cartoon of the Assumption for the central rose window in the cathedral fa�ade, and in 1412 designs for the flanking windows, representing St Stephen and St Lawrence. On 4 April 1424 he was paid for two designs for windows in the first bay of the cathedral, representing Joachim Expelled from the Temple and the Death of the Virgin. In October 1436 he received a final payment for designs for four windows in the St Zenobius Chapel of the cathedral choir. Finally, he designed three of the round windows in the drum of the cathedral dome: on 7 December 1443 he was paid for the Presentation in the Temple and on 11 September received final payments for Christ on the Mount of Olives and the Ascension.

Judging by its stylistic affinity to these windows, and also according to Vasari, the fa�ade window of the Crucifixion in Santa Croce, Florence, was also designed by Ghiberti, probably c. 1450.

Ghiberti produced two reliefs for the baptismal font designed by Jacopo della Quercia. The Baptistery is located below the Cathedral and consacrated to St John.

The commission for the reliefs, St John the Baptist before Herod and Baptism of Christ, had a complex history. In June or July 1416 Ghiberti was paid the cost of travelling to Siena, where he advised on the erection of the font. He visited Siena twice more, and on 21 May 1417 was commissioned to execute two bronze reliefs within 10 to 20 months. He did not keep to this timetable, and the reliefs were still unfinished in 1425. A document of 16 April 1425 states that he was working personally on one of them, while the other was in the hands of Giuliano di ser Andrea (active 1403-1427). Only on 15 November 1427 was the cost of sending the two bronze reliefs to Siena refunded.

The Siena reliefs differ from the later panels of the bronze door in the strong emphasis placed on the background, whether it represents an interior space as in St John the Baptist before Herod, or a heavenly scene with clouds and angels as in the Baptism. But there are also notable differences between the two Siena reliefs, which foreshadow a decisive turn in Ghiberti’s artistic development after 1425. Whereas the scene depicting St John and Herod is dominated by the three-dimensional figures in the foreground, in the Baptism only the four principal figures are in high relief, the rest of the relief being shallow. Accordingly the actual depth of the space in front of the figures in the latter is not great, and appears even less because of its steepness.

We may suppose that the model for the relief of St John before Herod is contemporary with the last panels of the bronze doors, while the Baptism dates from 1426-27 at the earliest. In addition, it seems probable that different hands were involved in the execution of the two reliefs. Despite its delicacy of detail, St John the Baptist before Herod is not of the same quality as the Baptism or the late panels of the bronze doors. The abrupt termination of the architecture on the right gives an unbalanced effect; the figures are unusually elongated; the individual forms of the palace are more delicate than in any other background architecture by Ghiberti; and the slight perspectival distortions are also unexpected, in comparison with the exemplary relief of Christ before Pilate on the bronze doors. This could be a largely independent work by Giuliano di ser Andrea. In the Baptism, on the other hand, Ghiberti accomplished the harmonization of the picture planes and the gradation of modelling that were characteristic of his latest reliefs.

This relief forms one side of the baptismal font of the Baptistery of the Cathedral, located below the Cathedral and consacrated to St John. The other side of the fountain contains Donatello’s relief the Feast of Herod.

Ghiberti’s ascertainable work as a painter is confined to the design of important stained-glass windows: he supplied (probably in 1404) a cartoon of the Assumption for the central rose window in the cathedral fa�ade, and in 1412 designs for the flanking windows, representing St Stephen and St Lawrence. On 4 April 1424 he was paid for two designs for windows in the first bay of the cathedral, representing Joachim Expelled from the Temple and the Death of the Virgin. In October 1436 he received a final payment for designs for four windows in the St Zenobius Chapel of the cathedral choir. Finally, he designed three of the round windows in the drum of the cathedral dome: on 7 December 1443 he was paid for the Presentation in the Temple and on 11 September received final payments for Christ on the Mount of Olives and the Ascension.

Judging by its stylistic affinity to these windows, and also according to Vasari, the fa�ade window of the Crucifixion in Santa Croce, Florence, was also designed by Ghiberti, probably c. 1450.

This door with God the Father belonged to a tabernacle for the custody of the Holy sacrament of the women’s hospital, which was placed against the left wall of the choir in the church of the hospital. The marble part of the tabernacle was commissioned from Bernardo Rossellino.

An Eastern influence may be recognized in the style of the head gear worn by God the Father, traceable to the 1439 Council of Florence at which eminent Byzantine figures were present.

In 1425, Ghiberti was at the peak of his fame, and he received the most important commission of his career. Evidently impressed by the doors he had just completed (2 Jan 1425), the Arte di Calimala entrusted him with a commission for a third pair of doors for the Baptistery. In the same year Leonardo Bruni suggested a scheme, similar to that of the two older doors, for twenty-eight reliefs in seven rows of four each, depicting eight prophets and twenty Old Testament episodes. It may be supposed that the reliefs were intended to be enclosed within quatrefoils and that the competition relief of the Sacrifice of Isaac (1401) was to be incorporated. However, this plan was abandoned - it is not known why or when, nor at whose direction it was changed.

As finally executed, the door is divided into ten large, nearly square panels, each illustrating a number of episodes and set within borders richly decorated with small figures and heads. The outer frame is ornamented with leaves, birds and animals. The programme must have been decided on soon after the commission was awarded, as the ten scenes were already rough cast by 4 April 1436 (or possibly 1437). The ten reliefs were completed by 7 August 1447 and the following years devoted to the framing; the gilding was completed on 16 June 1452.

On 13 July 1452 the consuls of the Arte di Calimala decided that the new doors would replace Ghiberti’s first set in the main portal of the Baptistery, and the earlier doors would be reinstalled on the northern side. This second set of bronze doors has become known in art history as the Gates of Paradise. Vasari reported that Michelangelo thought the door worthy to adorn the entrance to Paradise, but the name may have referred to the relief of Genesis, which was especially admired, judging by the frequency with which its individual motifs were borrowed in subsequent painting. A third possible explanation for the name is that there may formerly have been a parvis between the cathedral and the Baptistery.

As finally executed, the door is divided into ten large, nearly square panels, each illustrating a number of episodes and set within borders richly decorated with small figures and heads. The outer frame is ornamented with leaves, birds and animals. The programme must have been decided on soon after the commission was awarded, as the ten scenes were already rough cast by 4 April 1436 (or possibly 1437). The ten reliefs were completed by 7 August 1447 and the following years devoted to the framing; the gilding was completed on 16 June 1452.

The ten reliefs are the following (from top left to bottom right):

1. Creation of Adam and Eve
2. Cain and Abel
3. Stories of Noah
4. Sacrifice of Isaac
5. Isaac with Esau and Jacob
6. Stories of Joseph
7. Moses on Mt Sinai
8. Stories of Joshua
9. David and Goliath
10. Solomon and the Queen of Sheba

View the scheme of the Porta del Paradiso.

The new problems of design that confronted Ghiberti in the Gates of Paradise were chiefly those of uniting several scenes within ordered compositions and organizing the relief space in continuously connected layers. Here, too, Ghiberti’s style evolves continuously throughout the sequence of panels, from Jacob and Esau and Cain and Abel, through Genesis and Moses on Mt Sinai, to David and Goliath and Solomon and the Queen of Sheba. The front stage is increasingly reduced, while the background receives increasing emphasis, with a growing preference for shallow relief. Correspondingly, there is a slight diminution of scale in the foreground figures. This combination of sculptural and pictorial techniques tends to resolve the tension between high and low relief and thus unify the ensemble.

This is the masterpiece of Ghiberti, who worked on it for 27 years, lavishing on it all the richness of his imagination, combined with a fine sense of composition and profound knowledge of the modeller’s art. Michelangelo defined the door as fit to be the “gates of Paradise”.

The door, a universally admired masterpiece, has ten panels depicting Biblical scenes. At the centre of the door at left is the self-portrait of Ghiberti. The door’s original gilding has recently been recovered from beneath the patina formed over the centuries. It was badly damaged by Florence’s flood in 1966 when the waters of the Arno reached a height of more than 180 cm. After restoration it was moved to the museum of the Cathedral and substituted by a copy.

The sheets shows five studies of a single figure for a henchman of a flagellation of Christ, suggested hall architecture on the upper edge of the sheet.

Ghiberti received his contract for the north doors of the Baptistery in 1403. Modelling, casting, gilding, and finishing of the doors lasted until 1424, when they were finally installed on the east face of the Baptistery facing the Cathedral. Like the southern doors by Andrea Pisano, the northern doors are also divided into 28 panels, depicting stories from the life of Christ and the Doctors of the Church. Above the doors, St John preaching (1510) by Rustici, a pupil of Leonardo.

Over the twenty-one years Ghiberti spent creating the reliefs, his ideas for them evolved. The Adoration of the Magi from earlier in the modeling history of the doors show Ghiberti generally indebted to Andrea Pisano’s interpretation of the Gothic in the south doors of the Baptistery. In the Flagellation of Christ, one of the last reliefs to be designed, Ghiberti returned to a frontal composition with great effect.

Ghiberti received his contract for the north doors of the Baptistery in 1403. Modelling, casting, gilding, and finishing of the doors lasted until 1424, when they were finally installed on the east face of the Baptistery facing the Cathedral. Like the southern doors by Andrea Pisano, the northern doors are also divided into 28 panels, depicting stories from the life of Christ and the Doctors of the Church. Above the doors, St John preaching (1510) by Rustici, a pupil of Leonardo.

Over the twenty-one years Ghiberti spent creating the reliefs, his ideas for them evolved. The Adoration of the Magi from earlier in the modeling history of the doors show Ghiberti generally indebted to Andrea Pisano’s interpretation of the Gothic in the south doors of the Baptistery. In the Flagellation of Christ, one of the last reliefs to be designed, Ghiberti returned to a frontal composition with great effect.

The photo shows the originals in the Museo dell’Opera del Duomo.

The theme for Ghiberti’s north doors of the Baptistery is the life of Christ in 20 scenes with the 8 lower panels containing the Evangelists and Fathers of the Church. As these doors were kept shut, except on feast days, the scenes read from the bottom accross both wings.

The first panels executed reveal that Ghiberti tried to harmonize his compositions with the Gothic quatrefoil. The slender, lyrical figures approximate those of International Gothic painters like Lorenzo Monaco and Gentile da Fabriano. Their draperies establish patterns of fluid elegance which contribute a rhythmic unity to the design. As his work progressed, his compositions became more complex and his forms began to fight with the quattrefoil. Since he included ever more ambitious architectural and geometrical elements, his compositions evolved towards the new rectilinear Renaissance format.

The decision partly to gild the doors was made in 1423 and they were hung in 1424.

The 20 scenes from the life of Christ are

1. Annunciation
2. Nativity
3. Adoration of the Magi
4. Dispute with the Doctors
5. Baptism of Christ
6. Temptation of Christ
7. Chasing the merchants from the Temple
8. Jesus walking on water and saving Peter
9. Transfiguration
10. Resurrection of Lazarus
11. Entry of Jesus in Jerusalem
12. Last Supper
13. Agony in the Garden
14. Christ captured
15. Flagellation
16. Jesus before Pilate
17. Ascent to Calvary
18. Crucifixion
19. Resurrection
20. Pentecost

The four Evangelists are

• A. St John
• B. St Matthew
• C. St Luke
• D. St Mark

The four Church Fathers are

• E. St Ambrose
• F. St Jerome
• G. St Gregory
• H. St Augustine

View the arrangement of the panels on the north doors of the Baptistery.

The theme for Ghiberti’s north doors of the Baptistery is the life of Christ in 20 scenes with the 8 lower panels containing the Evangelists and Fathers of the Church. As these doors were kept shut, except on feast days, the scenes read from the bottom accross both wings.

The first panels executed reveal that Ghiberti tried to harmonize his compositions with the Gothic quatrefoil. The slender, lyrical figures approximate those of International Gothic painters like Lorenzo Monaco and Gentile da Fabriano. Their draperies establish patterns of fluid elegance which contribute a rhythmic unity to the design. As his work progressed, his compositions became more complex and his forms began to fight with the quattrefoil. Since he included ever more ambitious architectural and geometrical elements, his compositions evolved towards the new rectilinear Renaissance format.

The decision partly to gild the doors was made in 1423 and they were hung in 1424.

The 20 scenes from the life of Christ are

1. Annunciation
2. Nativity
3. Adoration of the Magi
4. Dispute with the Doctors
5. Baptism of Christ
6. Temptation of Christ
7. Chasing the merchants from the Temple
8. Jesus walking on water and saving Peter
9. Transfiguration
10. Resurrection of Lazarus
11. Entry of Jesus in Jerusalem
12. Last Supper
13. Agony in the Garden
14. Christ captured
15. Flagellation
16. Jesus before Pilate
17. Ascent to Calvary
18. Crucifixion
19. Resurrection
20. Pentecost

The four Evangelists are

• A. St John
• B. St Matthew
• C. St Luke
• D. St Mark

The four Church Fathers are

• E. St Ambrose
• F. St Jerome
• G. St Gregory
• H. St Augustine

View the arrangement of the panels on the north doors of the Baptistery.

The panels on the North Doors are divided by latticework enriched by varied floral ornament and by individual medallion heads. As in Andrea Pisano’s portal, the figures, architecture and landscape details are gilded and gleam against the dark background. Ghiberti signed his work OPUS LAURENTII FLORENTINI above the scenes of the Nativity and the Adoration of the Magi; the head above-left of the signature may be presumed to be a self-portrait, that above-right to be his son, Vittorio Ghiberti I.

The panels on the North Doors are divided by latticework enriched by varied floral ornament and by individual medallion heads. As in Andrea Pisano’s portal, the figures, architecture and landscape details are gilded and gleam against the dark background. Ghiberti signed his work OPUS LAURENTII FLORENTINI above the scenes of the Nativity and the Adoration of the Magi; the head above-left of the signature may be presumed to be a self-portrait, that above-right to be his son, Vittorio Ghiberti I.

The theme for Ghiberti’s north doors of the Baptistery is the life of Christ in 20 scenes with the 8 lower panels containing the Evangelists and Fathers of the Church. As these doors were kept shut, except on feast days, the scenes read from the bottom accross both wings.

View the arrangement of the panels on the north doors of the Baptistery.

The picture shows the Annunciation, the first scene of the cycle at bottom left on the left door.

The theme for Ghiberti’s north doors of the Baptistery is the life of Christ in 20 scenes with the 8 lower panels containing the Evangelists and Fathers of the Church. As these doors were kept shut, except on feast days, the scenes read from the bottom accross both wings.

View the arrangement of the panels on the north doors of the Baptistery.

The picture shows the Raising of Lazarus, one of the 20 scenes from the life of Christ.

The theme for Ghiberti’s north doors of the Baptistery is the life of Christ in 20 scenes with the 8 lower panels containing the Evangelists and Fathers of the Church. As these doors were kept shut, except on feast days, the scenes read from the bottom accross both wings.

View the arrangement of the panels on the north doors of the Baptistery.

The picture shows the Entry into Jerusalem, one of the 20 scenes from the life of Christ.

The theme for Ghiberti’s north doors of the Baptistery is the life of Christ in 20 scenes with the 8 lower panels containing the Evangelists and Fathers of the Church. As these doors were kept shut, except on feast days, the scenes read from the bottom accross both wings.

View the arrangement of the panels on the north doors of the Baptistery.

The picture shows the Last Supper, one of the 20 scenes from the life of Christ.

The theme for Ghiberti’s north doors of the Baptistery is the life of Christ in 20 scenes with the 8 lower panels containing the Evangelists and Fathers of the Church. As these doors were kept shut, except on feast days, the scenes read from the bottom accross both wings.

View the arrangement of the panels on the north doors of the Baptistery.

The picture shows the Agony in the Garden, one of the 20 scenes from the life of Christ.

The theme for Ghiberti’s north doors of the Baptistery is the life of Christ in 20 scenes with the 8 lower panels containing the Evangelists and Fathers of the Church. As these doors were kept shut, except on feast days, the scenes read from the bottom accross both wings.

View the arrangement of the panels on the north doors of the Baptistery.

The picture shows the Capture of Christ, one of the 20 scenes from the life of Christ.

The theme for Ghiberti’s north doors of the Baptistery is the life of Christ in 20 scenes with the 8 lower panels containing the Evangelists and Fathers of the Church. As these doors were kept shut, except on feast days, the scenes read from the bottom accross both wings.

View the arrangement of the panels on the north doors of the Baptistery.

The picture shows the Flagellation, one of the 20 scenes from the life of Christ.

The theme for Ghiberti’s north doors of the Baptistery is the life of Christ in 20 scenes with the 8 lower panels containing the Evangelists and Fathers of the Church. As these doors were kept shut, except on feast days, the scenes read from the bottom accross both wings.

View the arrangement of the panels on the north doors of the Baptistery.

The picture shows Christ before Pilate, one of the 20 scenes from the life of Christ.

The theme for Ghiberti’s north doors of the Baptistery is the life of Christ in 20 scenes with the 8 lower panels containing the Evangelists and Fathers of the Church. As these doors were kept shut, except on feast days, the scenes read from the bottom accross both wings.

View the arrangement of the panels on the north doors of the Baptistery.

The picture shows the Ascent to Calvary, one of the 20 scenes from the life of Christ. In this relief the frame has ceased to serve as a proscenium arch, and has receded to a middle plane, so that the action takes place in front of it. To this expedient of projecting the main focus of the narrative outwards towards the spectator much of the impact of this beautiful relief is due.

The theme for Ghiberti’s north doors of the Baptistery is the life of Christ in 20 scenes with the 8 lower panels containing the Evangelists and Fathers of the Church. As these doors were kept shut, except on feast days, the scenes read from the bottom accross both wings.

View the arrangement of the panels on the north doors of the Baptistery.

The picture shows the Crucifixion, one of the 20 scenes from the life of Christ.

The theme for Ghiberti’s north doors of the Baptistery is the life of Christ in 20 scenes with the 8 lower panels containing the Evangelists and Fathers of the Church. As these doors were kept shut, except on feast days, the scenes read from the bottom accross both wings.

View the arrangement of the panels on the north doors of the Baptistery.

The picture shows the Resurrection, one of the 20 scenes from the life of Christ.

The theme for Ghiberti’s north doors of the Baptistery is the life of Christ in 20 scenes with the 8 lower panels containing the Evangelists and Fathers of the Church. As these doors were kept shut, except on feast days, the scenes read from the bottom accross both wings.

View the arrangement of the panels on the north doors of the Baptistery.

The picture shows the Nativity, one of the 20 scenes from the life of Christ. In this relief of the Nativity the landscape foreground follows the frame, and the main figures, the Virgin and the shepherds, are placed on a central plane. From the left springs out a herald angel. In the Nativity Ghiberti induces a greater sense of depth than in the earlier Annunciation relief. This is achieved by methods of extraordinary subtlety, the clenched left hand of one of the two shepherds protruding beyond the frame, a contrast in scale between the right arm of the second shepherd and the distant tree nearby, and above all by the Virgin’s head thrust forward from the relief plane and represented looking downwards at the Child.

The theme for Ghiberti’s north doors of the Baptistery is the life of Christ in 20 scenes with the 8 lower panels containing the Evangelists and Fathers of the Church. As these doors were kept shut, except on feast days, the scenes read from the bottom accross both wings.

View the arrangement of the panels on the north doors of the Baptistery.

The picture shows the Pentecost, the last scene of the cycle.

The theme for Ghiberti’s north doors of the Baptistery is the life of Christ in 20 scenes with the 8 lower panels containing the Evangelists and Fathers of the Church. As these doors were kept shut, except on feast days, the scenes read from the bottom accross both wings.

View the arrangement of the panels on the north doors of the Baptistery.

The picture shows the Adoration of the Magi, one of the 20 scenes from the life of Christ.

The theme for Ghiberti’s north doors of the Baptistery is the life of Christ in 20 scenes with the 8 lower panels containing the Evangelists and Fathers of the Church. As these doors were kept shut, except on feast days, the scenes read from the bottom accross both wings.

View the arrangement of the panels on the north doors of the Baptistery.

The picture shows the Dispute with the Doctors, one of the 20 scenes from the life of Christ.

The theme for Ghiberti’s north doors of the Baptistery is the life of Christ in 20 scenes with the 8 lower panels containing the Evangelists and Fathers of the Church. As these doors were kept shut, except on feast days, the scenes read from the bottom accross both wings.

View the arrangement of the panels on the north doors of the Baptistery.

The picture shows the Baptism of Christ, one of the 20 scenes from the life of Christ.

The theme for Ghiberti’s north doors of the Baptistery is the life of Christ in 20 scenes with the 8 lower panels containing the Evangelists and Fathers of the Church. As these doors were kept shut, except on feast days, the scenes read from the bottom accross both wings.

View the arrangement of the panels on the north doors of the Baptistery.

The picture shows the Temptation of Christ, one of the 20 scenes from the life of Christ.

The theme for Ghiberti’s north doors of the Baptistery is the life of Christ in 20 scenes with the 8 lower panels containing the Evangelists and Fathers of the Church. As these doors were kept shut, except on feast days, the scenes read from the bottom accross both wings.

View the arrangement of the panels on the north doors of the Baptistery.

The picture shows the Expulsion of the Money-Changers from the Temple, one of the 20 scenes from the life of Christ.

The theme for Ghiberti’s north doors of the Baptistery is the life of Christ in 20 scenes with the 8 lower panels containing the Evangelists and Fathers of the Church. As these doors were kept shut, except on feast days, the scenes read from the bottom accross both wings.

View the arrangement of the panels on the north doors of the Baptistery.

The picture shows Jesus walking on water and saving Peter, one of the 20 scenes from the life of Christ.

The theme for Ghiberti’s north doors of the Baptistery is the life of Christ in 20 scenes with the 8 lower panels containing the Evangelists and Fathers of the Church. As these doors were kept shut, except on feast days, the scenes read from the bottom accross both wings.

View the arrangement of the panels on the north doors of the Baptistery.

The picture shows the Transfiguration, one of the 20 scenes from the life of Christ.

The theme for Ghiberti’s north doors of the Baptistery is the life of Christ in 20 scenes with the 8 lower panels containing the Evangelists and Fathers of the Church. As these doors were kept shut, except on feast days, the scenes read from the bottom accross both wings.

View the arrangement of the panels on the north doors of the Baptistery.

The picture shows St John, one of the four Evangelists.

The theme for Ghiberti’s north doors of the Baptistery is the life of Christ in 20 scenes with the 8 lower panels containing the Evangelists and Fathers of the Church. As these doors were kept shut, except on feast days, the scenes read from the bottom accross both wings.

View the arrangement of the panels on the north doors of the Baptistery.

The picture shows St Matthew, one of the four Evangelists.

The theme for Ghiberti’s north doors of the Baptistery is the life of Christ in 20 scenes with the 8 lower panels containing the Evangelists and Fathers of the Church. As these doors were kept shut, except on feast days, the scenes read from the bottom accross both wings.

View the arrangement of the panels on the north doors of the Baptistery.

The picture shows St Luke, one of the four Evangelists.

The theme for Ghiberti’s north doors of the Baptistery is the life of Christ in 20 scenes with the 8 lower panels containing the Evangelists and Fathers of the Church. As these doors were kept shut, except on feast days, the scenes read from the bottom accross both wings.

View the arrangement of the panels on the north doors of the Baptistery.

The picture shows St Mark, one of the four Evangelists.

The theme for Ghiberti’s north doors of the Baptistery is the life of Christ in 20 scenes with the 8 lower panels containing the Evangelists and Fathers of the Church. As these doors were kept shut, except on feast days, the scenes read from the bottom accross both wings.

View the arrangement of the panels on the north doors of the Baptistery.

The picture shows St Ambrose, one of the four Fathers of the Church.

The theme for Ghiberti’s north doors of the Baptistery is the life of Christ in 20 scenes with the 8 lower panels containing the Evangelists and Fathers of the Church. As these doors were kept shut, except on feast days, the scenes read from the bottom accross both wings.

View the arrangement of the panels on the north doors of the Baptistery.

The picture shows St Jerome, one of the four Fathers of the Church.

The theme for Ghiberti’s north doors of the Baptistery is the life of Christ in 20 scenes with the 8 lower panels containing the Evangelists and Fathers of the Church. As these doors were kept shut, except on feast days, the scenes read from the bottom accross both wings.

View the arrangement of the panels on the north doors of the Baptistery.

The picture shows St Gregory, one of the four Fathers of the Church.

The theme for Ghiberti’s north doors of the Baptistery is the life of Christ in 20 scenes with the 8 lower panels containing the Evangelists and Fathers of the Church. As these doors were kept shut, except on feast days, the scenes read from the bottom accross both wings.

View the arrangement of the panels on the north doors of the Baptistery.

The picture shows St Augustine, one of the four Fathers of the Church.

This panel is at the bottom right of the east doors. The subject matter of the meeting of Solomon and the Queen of Sheba is rarely depicted in this period, leading to speculation that it was included deliberately to represent the union of the Eastern and Western churches, which was announced on the steps of Florence’s Duomo on July 9, 1439, as the fruition of a Church council which had met there. Virtually the entire Byzantine court, including the Emperor of Byzantium, John VIII Paleologus, had travelled from Constantinople to participate in this council. The Eastern Church is metaphorically represented by Sheba, the queen who came to Solomon from the East, while the Western Church is represented by Solomon. The figures in the mid-ground, separated by parapets, align in formal, diagonal rows at either side of Solomon and Sheba, enhancing the sense of spatial recession. The figures in the foreground jostle for glimpses of the meeting.

This panel is at the bottom right of the east doors. The subject matter of the meeting of Solomon and the Queen of Sheba is rarely depicted in this period, leading to speculation that it was included deliberately to represent the union of the Eastern and Western churches, which was announced on the steps of Florence’s Duomo on July 9, 1439, as the fruition of a Church council which had met there. Virtually the entire Byzantine court, including the Emperor of Byzantium, John VIII Paleologus, had travelled from Constantinople to participate in this council. The Eastern Church is metaphorically represented by Sheba, the queen who came to Solomon from the East, while the Western Church is represented by Solomon. The figures in the mid-ground, separated by parapets, align in formal, diagonal rows at either side of Solomon and Sheba, enhancing the sense of spatial recession. The figures in the foreground jostle for glimpses of the meeting.

Each panel of the Gates of Paradise depicts several episodes of a biblical narrative. This panel depicts the Creation of Adam at the lower left, that of Eve in the centre, the Temptation in the distance at the extreme left, and the Expulsion from the garden at the extreme right. The creation of Eve has a central place because of the doctrine that her birth from the side of Adam foretold the creation of the Church. The female nudes Ghiberti designed in the Creation are noteworthy as the first sensuous female nudes of the Renaissance.

Suggested listening (streaming mp3, 12 minutes):

Joseph Haydn: The Creation, introduction and aria

Each panel of the Gates of Paradise depicts several episodes of a biblical narrative. This panel depicts the story of Cain and Abel: Adam and Eve before their tent, Abel guarding the herd, the sacrifices of Cain and Abel, Cain killing Abel, God banishing Cain.

Each panel of the Gates of Paradise depicts several episodes of a biblical narrative. This panel depicts the story of Cain and Abel: Adam and Eve before their tent, Abel guarding the herd, the sacrifices of Cain and Abel, Cain killing Abel, God banishing Cain.

The figure of the reclining Noah at the lower left echoes the figure of Adam on the Creation of Adam and Eve panel above, and the centre line of the composition through the figure of one of Noah’s sons connects visually with the open space between God and Eve above. The Noah panel represents another kind of fall of mankind, with Noah being the new Adam from whom humankind will again populate the earth. The ark in the distance, in the shape of a pyramid, seems to extend the entire width of the panel, again suggesting that its contents would repopulate the entire earth.

Each panel of the Gates of Paradise depicts several episodes of a biblical narrative. This panel depicts the Story of Abraham. Here Ghiberti dissolved the background to lead our eye beyond the slender trunks of trees to the distant hills against the sky. The Old testament story prefigures the New, for the sacrifice of Isaac appears in the background as a foreshadowing of the sacrifice of Christ. The three angels appearing to Abraham are a revelation of the Trinity, and the meal prepared by Sarah prophesies the establishment of the Eucharist.

Each panel of the Gates of Paradise depicts several episodes of a biblical narrative. In the panel depicting the story of the rival brothers Jacob and Esau, the latter exchanging his birthright as the eldest son for some food from his younger brother Jacob is depicted in the centre background. In front of this scene in the centre foreground is Esau and his hunting dogs being sent by his old and blind father Isaac to hunt for deer, while Esau’s departure on this quest is represented in the background at the far right. During Esau’s absence, Jacob and their mother, Rebecca, execute a plan whereby Jacob, dressed in the animal skins typical of Esau, approaches Isaac, and thereby deceives him into recognizing the disguised Jacob as his heir. These scenes are illustrated under and in front of the arch on the right. In the foreground the seated Isaac blesses a kneeling Jacob, who has an animal skin slung over his shoulder, while his elderly mother looks on.

The schiacciato relief deriving from Donatello’s sculpture and the single-point perspective system allow the space in this panel to recede illusionistically, the figures becoming flatter as well as smaller as they move into the distance.

Each panel of the Gates of Paradise depicts several episodes of a biblical narrative. In the Stories of Joseph a huge crowd takes part in the main action before the circular building which forms the background, yet despite the number of actors the scene combines coherence and unity with delicate, sinous charm, but the new interest in a perspective setting imparts a new logic and new order.

The panel is showing clearly the brilliant modelling technique and perfect perspective, so that the figures stand out against the architectural background and the work seems almost a painting in bronze.

Suggested listening (streaming mp3, 5 minutes):

�tienne Nicolas M�hul: Joseph, aria

Each panel of the Gates of Paradise depicts several episodes of a biblical narrative. In the Stories of Joseph a huge crowd takes part in the main action before the circular building which forms the background, yet despite the number of actors the scene combines coherence and unity with delicate, sinous charm, but the new interest in a perspective setting imparts a new logic and new order.

The panel is showing clearly the brilliant modelling technique and perfect perspective, so that the figures stand out against the architectural background and the work seems almost a painting in bronze.

Suggested listening (streaming mp3, 5 minutes):

�tienne Nicolas M�hul: Joseph, aria

Each panel of the Gates of Paradise depicts several episodes of a biblical narrative. This panel depicts Moses receiving the Law on Mount Sinai (above), and the Daughters of Israel (below).

Each panel of the Gates of Paradise depicts several episodes of a biblical narrative. This panel depicts Moses receiving the Law on Mount Sinai (above), and the Daughters of Israel (below).

Each panel of the Gates of Paradise depicts several episodes of a biblical narrative. This panel depicts Joshua on chariot preceded by the ark of the covenant; the Carrying of the Stones; the background with the city of Jericho and the priests with trumpets.

This panel depicts David in the process of severing the head of Goliath with his own large sword.

This panel depicts David in the process of severing the head of Goliath with his own large sword.

Classical statuettes were collected in the fifteenth century on a substantial scale, and Ghiberti must have been familiar with them. However, it is very doubtful if any independent statuette was made by him, since he was primarily a relief artist. Samson is one of the statuettes in high relief on the borders of Porta del Paradiso.

At the centre of the door at left can be found the self-portrait of Ghiberti.

Already on the north door of the Baptistery Ghiberti had introduced a self-portrait among the tiny heads in high relief at the corners of each plaque. He did it once again later, on the Porta del Paradiso, where he appears among the heads of prophets which alternate with statues of biblical personages in the framework of the door. Here we can observe close up the remarkable skill of the metal sculptor. In the earlier portrait on the north door, his face is still young and not particularly individualized, still very much subservient to antique models. Here, however, the depiction is entirely realistic, and Ghiberti portrays himself as the intellectual with prominent facial features and wrinkled brow.

At the centre of the door at left can be found the self-portrait of Ghiberti.

Already on the north door of the Baptistery Ghiberti had introduced a self-portrait among the tiny heads in high relief at the corners of each plaque. He did it once again later, on the Porta del Paradiso, where he appears among the heads of prophets which alternate with statues of biblical personages in the framework of the door. Here we can observe close up the remarkable skill of the metal sculptor. In the earlier portrait on the north door, his face is still young and not particularly individualized, still very much subservient to antique models. Here, however, the depiction is entirely realistic, and Ghiberti portrays himself as the intellectual with prominent facial features and wrinkled brow.

The Porta del Paradiso is divided into ten large, nearly square panels, each illustrating a number of episodes and set within borders richly decorated with small figures and heads.

The Porta del Paradiso is divided into ten large, nearly square panels, each illustrating a number of episodes and set within borders richly decorated with small figures and heads.

The Porta del Paradiso is divided into ten large, nearly square panels, each illustrating a number of episodes and set within borders richly decorated with small figures and heads.

Ghiberti’s ascertainable work as a painter is confined to the design of important stained-glass windows: he supplied (probably in 1404) a cartoon of the Assumption for the central rose window in the cathedral fa�ade, and in 1412 designs for the flanking windows, representing St Stephen and St Lawrence. On 4 April 1424 he was paid for two designs for windows in the first bay of the cathedral, representing Joachim Expelled from the Temple and the Death of the Virgin. In October 1436 he received a final payment for designs for four windows in the St Zenobius Chapel of the cathedral choir. Finally, he designed three of the round windows in the drum of the cathedral dome: on 7 December 1443 he was paid for the Presentation in the Temple and on 11 September received final payments for Christ on the Mount of Olives and the Ascension.

Judging by its stylistic affinity to these windows, and also according to Vasari, the fa�ade window of the Crucifixion in Santa Croce, Florence, was also designed by Ghiberti, probably c. 1450.

This panel, together with that made by Filippo Brunelleschi, both depicting the sacrifice of Isaac, have great artistic and historical importance. They are the famous trial pieces presented in a competition for the right to construct the door of the Baptistery. The lyrical elegance of Ghiberti’s version undoubtedly expresses more coherently the famous Biblical episode. Ghiberti won the competition.

Ghiberti’s competition relief of the Sacrifice of Isaac determined the development of low relief not only in the 15th century but through the stylistic periods of Mannerism and Baroque, and up until the work of Rodin in the 19th century.

This panel, together with that made by Filippo Brunelleschi, both depicting the sacrifice of Isaac, have great artistic and historical importance. They are the famous trial pieces presented in a competition for the right to construct the door of the Baptistery. The lyrical elegance of Ghiberti’s version undoubtedly expresses more coherently the famous Biblical episode. Ghiberti won the competition.

This panel, together with that made by Filippo Brunelleschi, both depicting the sacrifice of Isaac, have great artistic and historical importance. They are the famous trial pieces presented in a competition for the right to construct the door of the Baptistery. The lyrical elegance of Ghiberti’s version undoubtedly expresses more coherently the famous Biblical episode. Ghiberti won the competition.

One of the greatest sculptural programmes in the early Quattrocento was the exterior decoration of the Orsanmichele (a former grain market which had become an oratory below and a meeting hall for the market above), a building which joined civic and religious functions. In the Trecento each guild had been assigned the task of filling one niche with a freestanding statue of its patron saint. Only a few guilds complied, forcing the city council in 1406 to set a ten-year deadline for these obligations, which precipitated a spate of commissions.

Ghiberti entered the Orsanmichele arena in 1412 with the first bronze and his first large-scale figure, St John the Baptist, for the Arte di Calimala. The work, cast in one piece, was so difficult to execute that the guild stipulated it be undertaken at the sculptor’s risk. Although St John appears to epitomize the International Gothic style, his scroll is inscribed with what is thought to be an early example of humanist script.

The statue is shown as it was before being moved inside the museum.

View images of the sculptural decoration of Orsanmichele.

One of the greatest sculptural programmes in the early Quattrocento was the exterior decoration of the Orsanmichele (a former grain market which had become an oratory below and a meeting hall for the market above), a building which joined civic and religious functions. In the Trecento each guild had been assigned the task of filling one niche with a freestanding statue of its patron saint. Only a few guilds complied, forcing the city council in 1406 to set a ten-year deadline for these obligations, which precipitated a spate of commissions.

Ghiberti entered the Orsanmichele arena in 1412 with the first bronze and his first large-scale figure, St John the Baptist, for the Arte di Calimala. The work, cast in one piece, was so difficult to execute that the guild stipulated it be undertaken at the sculptor’s risk. Although St John appears to epitomize the International Gothic style, his scroll is inscribed with what is thought to be an early example of humanist script.

The statue is shown as it was before being moved inside the museum.

View images of the sculptural decoration of Orsanmichele.

St John the Baptist on the Orsanmichele, the first monumental bronze figure of modern times, was an extraordinary technical achievement. The figure was cast as a single piece, and the difficulties of casting necessitated laborious polishing and chasing, including incisions in the drapery up to a depth of 50 mm. The statue is distinguished by the extraordinary detail and decorative beauty of the chasing of the hair, beard and goatskin.

The statue was moved inside the museum and was replaced by a copy on the fa�ade.

This statue represents a saint who has lived long in the wilderness; his hair and beard fall in disordered locks, while his eyes are sunken deeply into their sockets.

Ghiberti produced two reliefs for the baptismal font designed by Jacopo della Quercia. The Baptistery is located below the Cathedral and consacrated to St John.

The commission for the reliefs, St John the Baptist before Herod and Baptism of Christ, had a complex history. In June or July 1416 Ghiberti was paid the cost of travelling to Siena, where he advised on the erection of the font. He visited Siena twice more, and on 21 May 1417 was commissioned to execute two bronze reliefs within 10 to 20 months. He did not keep to this timetable, and the reliefs were still unfinished in 1425. A document of 16 April 1425 states that he was working personally on one of them, while the other was in the hands of Giuliano di ser Andrea (active 1403-1427). Only on 15 November 1427 was the cost of sending the two bronze reliefs to Siena refunded.

The Siena reliefs differ from the later panels of the bronze door in the strong emphasis placed on the background, whether it represents an interior space as in St John the Baptist before Herod, or a heavenly scene with clouds and angels as in the Baptism. But there are also notable differences between the two Siena reliefs, which foreshadow a decisive turn in Ghiberti’s artistic development after 1425. Whereas the scene depicting St John and Herod is dominated by the three-dimensional figures in the foreground, in the Baptism only the four principal figures are in high relief, the rest of the relief being shallow. Accordingly the actual depth of the space in front of the figures in the latter is not great, and appears even less because of its steepness.

We may suppose that the model for the relief of St John before Herod is contemporary with the last panels of the bronze doors, while the Baptism dates from 1426-27 at the earliest. In addition, it seems probable that different hands were involved in the execution of the two reliefs. Despite its delicacy of detail, St John the Baptist before Herod is not of the same quality as the Baptism or the late panels of the bronze doors. The abrupt termination of the architecture on the right gives an unbalanced effect; the figures are unusually elongated; the individual forms of the palace are more delicate than in any other background architecture by Ghiberti; and the slight perspectival distortions are also unexpected, in comparison with the exemplary relief of Christ before Pilate on the bronze doors. This could be a largely independent work by Giuliano di ser Andrea. In the Baptism, on the other hand, Ghiberti accomplished the harmonization of the picture planes and the gradation of modelling that were characteristic of his latest reliefs.

Ghiberti produced two reliefs for the baptismal font designed by Jacopo della Quercia. The Baptistery is located below the Cathedral and consacrated to St John.

The commission for the reliefs, St John the Baptist before Herod and Baptism of Christ, had a complex history. In June or July 1416 Ghiberti was paid the cost of travelling to Siena, where he advised on the erection of the font. He visited Siena twice more, and on 21 May 1417 was commissioned to execute two bronze reliefs within 10 to 20 months. He did not keep to this timetable, and the reliefs were still unfinished in 1425. A document of 16 April 1425 states that he was working personally on one of them, while the other was in the hands of Giuliano di ser Andrea (active 1403-1427). Only on 15 November 1427 was the cost of sending the two bronze reliefs to Siena refunded.

The Siena reliefs differ from the later panels of the bronze door in the strong emphasis placed on the background, whether it represents an interior space as in St John the Baptist before Herod, or a heavenly scene with clouds and angels as in the Baptism. But there are also notable differences between the two Siena reliefs, which foreshadow a decisive turn in Ghiberti’s artistic development after 1425. Whereas the scene depicting St John and Herod is dominated by the three-dimensional figures in the foreground, in the Baptism only the four principal figures are in high relief, the rest of the relief being shallow. Accordingly the actual depth of the space in front of the figures in the latter is not great, and appears even less because of its steepness.

We may suppose that the model for the relief of St John before Herod is contemporary with the last panels of the bronze doors, while the Baptism dates from 1426-27 at the earliest. In addition, it seems probable that different hands were involved in the execution of the two reliefs. Despite its delicacy of detail, St John the Baptist before Herod is not of the same quality as the Baptism or the late panels of the bronze doors. The abrupt termination of the architecture on the right gives an unbalanced effect; the figures are unusually elongated; the individual forms of the palace are more delicate than in any other background architecture by Ghiberti; and the slight perspectival distortions are also unexpected, in comparison with the exemplary relief of Christ before Pilate on the bronze doors. This could be a largely independent work by Giuliano di ser Andrea. In the Baptism, on the other hand, Ghiberti accomplished the harmonization of the picture planes and the gradation of modelling that were characteristic of his latest reliefs.

The casting of the over life-size bronze statue of St Matthew was only partly successful, and certain parts had to be recast. There is no evidence as to which these were, nor can it be discerned from the figure; conceivably it was the open book of the Gospel and the right hand, held away from the body. The statue was moved inside the museum and was replaced by a copy on the fa�ade.

During the execution of the Gates of Paradise, Ghiberti received a number of prestigious commissions. On 2 April 1425 the Arte di Lana (Wool guild) decided to replace their marble statue of St Stephen at Orsanmichele, which dated from 1340, with a bronze figure and a new tabernacle; clearly they did not wish to be outdone by the rich guilds of the Calimala and Zecca. Ghiberti received the commission in that year, and the statue, originally partly gilded, was placed on the west side of Orsanmichele.

The model for the statue was completed on 5 August 1427, and the whole work, including gilding, on 1 February 1429. Critics have generally been reserved in their praise of St Stephen. It is true that the statue does not represent any further progress in Ghiberti’s move towards ‘modern’ contrapposto, begun in his St Matthew. As in the statue of St John the Baptist, the pose and movement are chiefly expressed in the soft undulations of the voluminous garment. However, the unity of composition is much more emphasized than in the statue of St John, and the sensitive modelling of the head, perhaps influenced by that of Donatello’s St Louis (Museo dell’Opera di Santa Croce, Florence), is unsurpassed by any other of Ghiberti’s works.

During the execution of the Gates of Paradise, Ghiberti received a number of prestigious commissions. On 2 April 1425 the Arte di Lana (Wool guild) decided to replace their marble statue of St Stephen at Orsanmichele, which dated from 1340, with a bronze figure and a new tabernacle; clearly they did not wish to be outdone by the rich guilds of the Calimala and Zecca. Ghiberti received the commission in that year, and the statue, originally partly gilded, was placed on the west side of Orsanmichele.

The model for the statue was completed on 5 August 1427, and the whole work, including gilding, on 1 February 1429. Critics have generally been reserved in their praise of St Stephen. It is true that the statue does not represent any further progress in Ghiberti’s move towards ‘modern’ contrapposto, begun in his St Matthew. As in the statue of St John the Baptist, the pose and movement are chiefly expressed in the soft undulations of the voluminous garment. However, the unity of composition is much more emphasized than in the statue of St John, and the sensitive modelling of the head, perhaps influenced by that of Donatello’s St Louis (Museo dell’Opera di Santa Croce, Florence), is unsurpassed by any other of Ghiberti’s works.

Knowledge of Ghiberti’s work as an architect is patchy. In 1406-08 he was already advising on the construction of Florence Cathedral. A document of September 1418 indicates that he employed four assistants to produce a model for the dome, which was submitted on 13 December together with models by other masters. The final competition between Brunelleschi and Ghiberti for the construction of the dome evidently took place at the end of March or beginning of April 1420. On 16 April of that year Ghiberti, Brunelleschi and the master mason Battista d’Antonio (active 1420-39) were appointed to supervise the construction. What part he had in its final design and technical construction is not clear.

Other attributions remain hypothetical: the only indications we have of his architectural style are the niche for the statue of St Matthew at Orsanmichele, which employs a composite style of antique and Late Gothic elements, and the tabernacle (Museo di San Marco, Florence) designed in 1432 for an altar for the Arte di Linaiuoli (Linen-workers’ guild).

The tabernacle contains Fra Angelico’s altarpiece depicting the Virgin and Child Enthroned with St John the Baptist and St Mark.

Between 1425 and 1427 Ghiberti executed the bronze tomb slab of Leonardo Dati (d. 1425), general of the Dominican Order, the head of which may have been worked from a death-mask.

Throughout the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries one of the commonest types of commemorative monument was a tomb slab set in the church floor. Occacionally, in the hands of a great sculptor, this was elevated into a work of art. In San Frediano at Lucca it was stamped with the personal rhythms and rolling drapery of Jacopo della Quercia’s mature style; in Santa Maria Novella in Florence it took on the flowing silhouette of Ghiberti’s tomb slab of Leonardo Dati; and in Siena Cathedral it embraced the complex space structure of the Pecci tomb slab of Donatello. On one occasion, and one only, the tomb slab was developed further still, and was raised on a carved marble surround which lent it the status of a free-standing monument. The work in question is Michelozzo’s tomb slab of Pope Martin V in San Giovanni in Laterano, Rome.